The Role of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education in Improving Literacy Among Primary School Students in Timor-Leste: A Systematic Review

This systematic review aims to discuss the role of MTB-MLE in improving the literacy levels of primary school children in Timor-Leste, a post-colonial country with multilingualism. In the scoping review, the empirical studies from 2019 to 2025 show that MTB-MLE enhances the knowledge of early readers, cognitive improvements, and students’ learning interest. Research in this area has established that education in the first language enhances literacy in general and during the early years of learning and also makes it easier for learners to learn national and international languages like Portuguese and English. However, there are some difficulties in implementing the programme, including inadequate qualified multilingual teachers, a lack of instructional materials in local languages, and policies that contradict each other. It is also argued that the MTB-MLE strategies positively support cultural identity and linguistic justice, which provide the underlying achievements outside the narrow scope of academic achievement and student results. It also implies that gradualism is best, as there is no rush to switch from the first language to a second language. Instead, we should train and support the teachers and consistently develop and disseminate culturally congruent materials. Finally, it advocates for conducting additional longitudinal studies to understand the long-term impacts of technology and to determine appropriate strategies based on the findings. In general, the results underline the importance of MTB-MLE for the development of education for learners and literacy in the multilingual postcolonial context of Timor Leste.